CASE STUDY: CAMDEN (One Socially Sustainable Housing Management Strategy)

URBAN ENVIRONMENTS (THE SUSTAINABLE CITY: One socially sustainable housing management strategy)

Camden’s new energy-efficient homes that won’t break the bank

Camden council is using top architects to create 1,200 new, energy-efficient homes for sale at affordable prices.

From £300,000: Chester Balmore, near Highgate, is a collection of 53 council and private tenure energy-efficient homes. Visit chesterbalmore.com

Camden’s architecture department, in an all-too-brief period of glory between 1965 and 1973, built social housing so pioneering it drew admirers from around the world.

Inspired by the modernist master Le Corbusier, the borough triumphed with high-quality council housing on a series of low-rise concrete estates, including Bloomsbury’s Brunswick Centre and Rowley Way. Loved as film locations, you can spot these estates in The Sweeney and Prime Suspect, and in the movie Breaking and Entering. Now, these same homes appear in Brutal and Beautiful, an exhibition celebrating the best of postwar architecture showing at Wellington Arch near Hyde Park.

Today, Camden is back building showpiece housing schemes that mix public and private tenure, with about 1,200 new homes in the pipeline.

Chester Balmore is the first of these new developments, built to energy-efficient “Passivhaus” standards in Highgate, bordering the cemetery and a Victorian library. Designed by Rick Mather Architects, more often associated with high-profile international projects, there are 53 super-insulated, triple-glazed one- to three-bedroom flats in elegant brick-clad blocks amid the surroundings of the Dartmouth Park conservation area.

All the homes have identical specifications. They are dual aspect, have outside space, and some are spread over two floors with a front door on to communal gardens or tree-lined street.

Lower energy bills

Combining form and function, the white-walled interiors have full-height doors, sensor lights and timber flooring throughout, while a ventilation heat recovery and air-filtration system avoids the need for wall-hugging radiators. Passivhaus design reduces energy costs by up to 75 per cent. Prices start at £300,000.

Twenty six of the flats are for private sale while four are shared-ownership for those earning £35,000 to £39,000 and living or working in the borough. It is a car-free scheme, meaning no on-site parking and residents do not qualify for street permits. Call 020 3320 8220.

This is the first time the council has built new housing for private sale, with the proceeds invested back into the neighbourhoods in the form of new low-cost housing, public realm improvements, open spaces and new shops and community facilities.

Camden: more affordable homes on the way

Over the years, many of Camden’s best council houses have been snapped up under the Right to Buy. But affordable resales appear on the market. A one-bedroom flat at the architecturally prized Whittington Estate sold for £295,500 this year. Gavin Miller, project architect of neighbouring Chester Balmore, lives at the Whittington.

Other mixed-tenure Camden projects coming up include Maiden Lane at King’s Cross,Bourne Estate in Clerkenwell, Tybalds Estate in Holborn, Abbey Road, just north of St John’s Wood, Bacton Estate at Gospel Oak and Agar Grove, Camden Town.

New affordable homes are also being created as part of the redevelopment of Centre Point, the iconic Sixties West End office tower.

With an average house price of £806,414, Camden is the third most expensive London borough, but housing associations are offering far cheaper homes. Forty per cent of properties at King’s Cross Central, a new district being built on redeveloped railway land behind the station, are classified affordable, for rent and shared ownership. These are available through One Housing Group, which is releasing apartment blocks in phases. Call 0300 123 9966.

Origin Housing is also worth contacting. It owns and manages properties at developments such as Regent’s Place, a 13-acre office, retail and residential quarter alongside Euston station. Call 0800 068 8990.

CASE STUDY: The Trade in Tea

(DISPARITIES IN WEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT: REDUCING DISPARITIES)

  • Like other raw materials, only small % final P goes to producers
    • majority of $ generated by tea industry goes to the post-raw-material states
      • benefits MEDCs, not LEDCs (producing nations)
  • Dutch Tea Institute report (2006) found:
    • ↓ P (bc ↑ compeition in tea market)…↑ costs of production…pressure to ↓ wages…need to ↑ social, economic, ecological and labor conditions throughout tea sector in LEDCs
  • Global tea market dominated by small no. of companies…v. large market power
  • Annual export sales of tea (raw material): $3 billion
    • Much LOWER than retail value of global tea business
  • Global trading system prevents tea producers from moving up value chain by processing and packaging the tea they grow
    • bc would have to compete w/ v. powerful brands
      • difficult to achieve EOS of global tea companies

CASE STUDY: The Emergence of China as a Major Trading Nation

(DISPARITIES IN WEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT: REDUCING DISPARITIES)

  • 1976 death of Mao Zedong…big change in China’s econ. policy
    • Mao’s successor aimed to end China’s “isolation” from the world economy + imitate East Asia’s export-led success
      • 10%↑ econ. growth/year
      • 15%↑ exports/year in 1980s-90s
      • 8x↑ size of Chinese economy
      • 150 million↓ no. of Chinese living on <$1/day between 1990-8
      • strong continued growth in 1st decade of 2000s
  • Value of China’s int’l trade: $2562 billion (2008) vs $1.13 billion (1950)
  • Forex reserves >$2000 billion (2008)
  • China now world’s 3rd largest economy
  • ↑Y/capita due to econ. growth & trade: 22,968 yuan (2008) vs 463 (1980)
  • 1999: CHINA JOINED WTO
  • Attracted record $92 billion in FDI (2008)
    • foreign companies attracted to cheap labour (wages in China <5% wages in US)
  • EXPORTS:
    • 60% world’s bicycles
    • >50% world’s shoes
    • 20% of world’s garments (predicted to ↑ to 50% in 2010)
  • NB: China’s share of world trade still only 4%…trade surplus $30 billion

Switch Mode Transformer

Switch mode transformers do not contain an iron core, in order for them to be lighter than traditional transformers. However, since a transformer without an iron core is not as powerful as one with an iron core, switch mode transformers work at a much higher frequency than traditional transformers i.e. the magnetic field changes more often!

Switch Mode:

  • more expensive (because more sophisticated technology)
  • lightweight (because no iron core)
  • more efficient (e.g. for a charger: once the device is fully charged, the transformer won’t take any more current…saves energy…reduces HH energy costs!)*

*ANALOGY: a switch mode transformer is like a can of soda…the current is like the soda inside…charging a phone/device is like pouring the soda out…when the can has been emptied (when the phone is fully charged), no more liquid flows out (no more current passes)

Traditional: (opposite)

  • less expensive
  • heavier

Translation and Vectors

What do the values in the brackets mean? (referring to translations)

Top number: horizontal movement…-ve number represents movement to the left…+ve to the right

Bottom number: vertical movement…-ve number represents movement downwards…+ve upwards

Electrolysis: Anodes and Cathodes

REMEMBER: Electrolysis involves ACTUAL CURRENT FLOW i.e. negative to positive…not conventional current
  • ANode attracts ANions (the anode is the positive electrode)…CAThode attracts CATions (the cathode is the negative electrode)
  • The cathode is connected to the negative terminal of the cell/battery…the anode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery
  • AN OX: OXidation happens at the ANode…RED CAT: REDuction happens at the CAThode

Note: the electrodes themselves aren’t permanently magnetically charged.

What happens is, the electrons are repelled by the negative terminal of the cell/battery and flow towards the cathode, giving it a negative charge. But the electrons are then taken by the cations in order to turn them into atoms i.e. at the point when they are taken by the cation, the electrode is not charged!

Rag Desh Comparison Part Two

All versions contain TEMPO CHANGES

Slow to start

Moderate tempo in the Gat

Fast tempo in the Jhalla

Slow to start/ rubato

Slow tempo to start

Slow tempo in Gat 1

Faster tempo in Gat 2

Based on the same RAGA

RAG DESH

RAG DESH

RAG DESH

All contain IMPROVISATION

Melodic improvisation on the Sitar.

Pre-composed melody.

Melodic improvisation ~ voice

Melodic improvisation on bansuri and esraj.

All use a TAL

All use different Tals

Jhaptal – 10 beats

Tintal – 16 beats

Keherwa Tal – 8 beats

Rupak Tal – 7 beats

Ektal – 12 beats

Use of TIHAIs

Tihais at the end of the Gat

Piece ends with a short Tihai

Tihais at the end of both of the Gat sections.

Different RHYTHMIC VALUES

Triplets

Syncopation

All versions end on THE SAM.

SAM ends the piece.

SAM ends the piece.

SAM ends the piece.

Different PERFORMING VENUES.

Concert Hall/Stage

To be played at a specific time of day

Evening and during the monsoon season.

Hindu Temple

To be played at a specific time of day

Evening and during the monsoon season.

Concert Hall/Stage

To be played at a specific time of day

Evening and during the monsoon season.

Rag Desh Comparison Part One

MUSICAL ELEMENT

VERSION 1

VERSION 2

VERSION 3

Different INSTRUMENTATION

Sitar

7 main strings and              12 sympathetic strings

Sarod, Sarangi, Pakhawaj, Small Cymbals, Voice

Bansuri, Esraj, Shruti Box, Swarmandel

Same INSTRUMENTATION

Tabla

Tabla

Tabla

All contain a PLUCKED STRING

INSTRUMENT

Sitar

Sarod

Swarmandel

Two versions contain a BOWED STRING INSTUMENT

Sarangi

Esraj

All versions use MEENDS – slides and pitch bends

Sitar

Voice

Bansuri

All have a DRONE played on different instruments

Sitar

Sarangi and Sarod

Shruti Box

Same DRONE NOTES

Tonic and Dominant

Tonic and Dominant

Tonic and Dominant

Similarities in STRUCTURE

Alap, slow tempo no pulse.

Alap, slow tempo no pulse.

Alap, slow tempo no pulse.

Differences in STRUCTURE

Gat

Jhalla

Bhajan

Fast Gat 2

Composed section

Gat

Sung verse which is repeated several times

Gat

Elements of VIRTUOSITY

Sitar improvises on the Gat in a virtuosic way.

Voice decorates important words with ornaments,    trills and melismas.

Bansuri plays fast scales (tans) in the Gat 2.

Similar starting tempo.

Slow

Slow

Slow

Evaluation: Reasons for Protectionism

1. JOB PROTECTION

  • May protect jobs in the SR…but firms will not grow in the LR because protection makes them inefficient and lazy…increases U in the LR!
  • Even without protection, job losses are only temporary…other firms will develop + grow in the economy…decreases U!

2. INFANT INDUSTRY PROTECTION

  • Government is bad at choosing which firms to protect because they cannot predict which firms will make the most of protection and grow! “picking winners”
  • Protected firms will not want to have their protection removed…will claim to “need more time”…besides, it is impossible to pinpoint when an infant firm has “grown up”!

3. PREVENTS DUMPING

  • Dumping is unfair! (Example of dumping: There is excess supply of Brazilian oranges in one country, so the firm selling the oranges thinks “well, we can’t sell any more oranges in the domestic market, but we don’t want to just throw them away…let’s sell them really cheaply abroad – below the cost of production – so at least we’ll get some money in return – better than throwing them away and getting no money at all”)
  • On the other hand, firms can be accused of dumping when they actually aren’t – we may not know what their cost of production is!

4. INCREASES GOVERNMENT REVENUE

  • Regressive – hurts the poor more than the rich

5. PREVENTS ENTRY OF “HARMFUL” GOODS

  • Could just be an excuse to make it difficult for imports to enter – goods may not actually be harmful

6. IMPROVES CURRENT ACCOUNT

  • Pathetic excuse – there are much better ways to do this! Increase your exports, don’t decrease your imports!

 

Solubility Rules

NAGGAS ARE ALWAYS SOLUBLE UNLESS…

7 GIRLS HAVE PMS OR

SULFATES BA-RING SRIRAC(H)A

7 GIRLS = Group 7 + SulfatesPMS = Pb(2+) Mercury – Hg2(2+) Silver – Ag(+) aka WHEN 7 GIRLS HAVE PMS, THEY ARE NEVER SOLUBLE

SULFATES BA-RING SRIRAC(H)A = Ba (2+), Sr (2+), Ca (2+) aka WHEN SULFATES BA-RING SRIRACHA, THEY ARE NEVER SOLUBLE

Screen Shot 2013-11-08 at 8.00.17 PM

NAGGAS =

Nitrates – NO3(-)

Acetates – C2H3O2

Group 1 – Li, Na, Mg, K, Rb, Cs, Fr (+)

Group 7 – Fl, Cl, Br, I, As (-)

Ammonium – NH4(+)

Sulfates – SO4(-)

 

CONDENSED – Case Study: Haiti (Management of a Tectonic Event)

Risk Assessment

  • Seismically active area + history of destructive earthquakes
  • No formal risk assessment (authorities)
  •  “Haitian emergency services would not be able to cope” (AUS gov’t)

Prediction

  • “Fault line – end of seismic cycle + worst-case 7.2” (overseas seismologists, 2007)
  • “High risk of major seismic activity” (other seismologists)

Preparation

  • No action + emergency plans (authorities)
  • Poor country – non-earthquake resistant shanty-type houses + transport + telecommunications infrastructure
  • People not educated

Short Term

  • Lack of information –> major confusion
  • Lack of disaster response (authorities) -> blocked roads + traffic -> international rescue efforts restricted
  • 2000 international rescuers after 1 week
  • Badly damaged infrastructure
    • 50+ hospitals + land/sea transport facilities + telecommunication
    • -> Immediate relief & rescue efforts failed
  • Minimal gov’t management of r & r
    • 25% civil servants dead
  • Roads blocked long time -> no access by disaster relief (food/water/tents/clothing)
  • 1/3 HHs lost all food supply
  • Lack of ramps -> planes with relief supplies could not unload
  • Lack of fuel -> planes could not leave
  • No temporary housing -> streets + self-built shanty towns
  • 1.5M homeless -> relief camps
  • Poor sanitation -> cholera outbreak
  • Slow corpse removal -> disease
  • No security -> stealing
  • Lack of help -> 600,OOO left area (back to rural)

 Long term

  • Slow response (authorities + foreign NGOs)
  • 6 MONTHS
    • Humanitarian situation:  still “emergency phase”
    • 98% rubble remained -> Port-au-Prince impassable
    • 1M still in relief camps
      • Crime
      • Building of new gov’t centre: not begun
  • 1 YEAR
    • No major rebuilding
    • “Only 15% basic/temporary housing built” (Oxfam)
    • 95% rubble remained -> no land for rebuilding
  • 2 YEARS
    • 500,000 homeless
    • “Only 50% money pledged for reconstruction ($4.5bn) received” (UN)
  • 1/5 jobs lost, not replaced -> ñunemployment
  • Occasional cholera outbreaks
  • Some schools/hospitals not rebuilt

Economic Activity and Energy Revision Guide

Topics

  1. Economic sectors
  2. Informal vs. formal sector unemployment
  3. Changing location of tertiary and quaternary sector
  4. Global shift in manufacturing
  5. Deindustrialisation
  6. Energy demand
  7. Renewable and nonrenewable energy sources
  8. Energy efficiency
  9. Planning fieldwork

Key terms

  • Types of industry sector (e.g. types of manufacturing industries)
  • Types of energy
  • Types of sampling techniques
  • HIC, LIC, MIC
  • Factors affecting industrial location
  • Energy production, consumption, energy gap
  • Questionnaires

Case Studies

Deindustrialisation: South Wales

Reindustrialisation: Location of Nissan car manufacturing plant in Sunderland

High-tech industry: M4 Corridor

 

 

 

 

 

 

Electromagnetic Waves Hazards and Safety Precautions

Hazard Safety Precaution
Microwaves heating of tissue / perceived risk of cancer close oven door / hands-free cell phone / monitor
Radio
Infrared risk of skin burning / cell damage avoid hot places / reflective clothing / avoid exposure (to sun)
Visible light eye damage sun glasses / avoid exposure (to sun)
Ultraviolet risk of {skin / eye} damage / blindness IGNORE: sunburn skin cream / sunglasses / avoid exposure (to sun)
X-rays internal heating of body tissue / risk of cancer / cell damage (lead) shielding / monitor exposure e.g. film badge
Gamma risk of cancer / cell damage (lead) shielding / monitor exposure e.g. film badge

 

Great X-tra Ugly Virgins Interest Men Rarely

Radio waves – broadcasting, communications

Microwaves – cooking, satellite transmissions

Infrared – heating, night vision equipment

Visible – optical fibres, photography

Ultraviolet – detecting forged banknotes, fluorescent lamps

X-rays – observing the internal structure of objects/materials

Gamma rays – sterilizing food/medical equipment

Economic Activity and Energy Revision Checklist

  1. Economic sectors definitions, examples, LICs and HICs
  2. Informal sector vs formal sector employment characteristics, examples, advantages and disadvantages
  3. Changing location of tertiary and quaternary sectors
  4. Global shift in manufacturing TNCs (more profit by locating their factories on cheap land), transport (faster and cheaper so distance from raw materials/markets is less of an issue), communications (faster and more efficient – contact with factories abroad), energy (national grid systems to provide electricity, which manufacturing relies on), governments, footloose industries
  5. Deindustrialisation 
  6. Energy demand/supply and the energy gap
  7. Renewable and non-renewable sources advantages and disadvantages of each
  8. Energy efficiency arguments for and against, ways to be efficient
  9. Planning fieldwork good vs bad questionnaires, sampling technique (minimizing bias, random vs stratified), sample size (how many people surveyed), data presentation, conclusion (trends, anomalies), evaluation (quality of questionnaire/sampling technique/data/presentation method etc)

Case studies:

  • South Wales (deindustrialisation)
  • M4 Corridor (high-tech industry)
  • Nissan car assembly plant in Sunderland (re-industrialisation)
  • HIC and LIC (decentralization of service industry)

Effect of Interest Rates

An interest rate is the price or cost of borrowing money.

For example you might borrow £1,000 from a bank. However, they will not give you the money for free you will have to repay the £1,000 plus interest. AND

The reward for lending money

If you put money into a bank you will gain interest as a ‘thank you’ for lending the money.

CHANGES IN INTEREST RATES

Banks and building societies regularly change their interest rates. A change will have a major impact upon consumers, savers, borrowers, homeowners and businesses.

INTEREST RATES GO UP

Group Effect Knock-on
Consumers
Costs more to take out a loan to buy a car or a kitchen
Less likely to buy expensive goods
Borrowers
Their loan repayments may increase
Less money to spend on other goods
Savers
They get a better return on their savings.
More likely to save than spend
Homeowners
Their mortgage repayments increase
Less money to spend on goods and services
Businesses
Loans for expansion cost more
Less likely to expand or buy new equipment

INTEREST RATES GO DOWN

Group
Effect
Knock-on
Consumers
Costs less to take out a loan to buy a car or a kitchen
More likely to buy expensive goods
Borrowers
Their loan repayments may decrease
More money to spend on other goods
Savers
They get a lower return on their savings.
More likely to spend than save
Homeowners
Their mortgage repayments decrease
More money to spend on goods and services
Businesses
Loans for expansion cost less
More likely to expand or buy new equipment

n.b also be aware that a rise in interest rates also tends to cause a stronger £ and vice versa

Xylem-and-Phloem

xylem and phloem

Cambium immature cell (could become either a xylem or phloem cell)

Tissue Xylem Phloem
Transport Water an minerals from roots to shoots and leaves Sucrose and amino acids produced in leaves during photosynthesis to every part of the plant
Process Transpiration Translocation
Structure Cylindrical cells arranged end to end, in which the cytoplasm dies and the cell walls between adjoining cells breaks down leaving a dead empty tube with strengthened cell walls Phloem tubes are made up of columns of living cylindrical cells. The cell walls between adjoining cells develop holes like a sieve allowing transport through the tube

XYLEM VESSELS: Why does the water move up? What is the “transpiration stream”?

“Water is lost through the leaf of the plant by evaporation in a process called transpiration. This results in a pull on a column of water molecules which extends right down through the stem to the roots.

Water molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds. As a water molecule evaporates from the leaf, it pulls on the water molecule next to it, which in turn exerts a pull on the water molecule next to it and so on. This transmits a pull all the way down the column of water to the root system. In addition, the water molecules also adhere to the walls of the xylem vessel, preventing gravity from pulling the molecules back down.

So as each water molecule exits the leaf, it pulls the column of water molecules upwards from the root of the plant up the xylem and into the leaf. This upward movement of water resulting from the evaporation of water from the leaf is called the transpiration stream.” (from Pass My Exams)

24/10/13

Translocation

Sucrose is glucose molecules bonded together (in a condensation reaction). Sucrose can get broken down into glucose which is used for

  • releasing energy by respiration
  • producing proteins, such as enzymes and chlorophyll
  • producing cellulose, which strengthens the cell wall

*NOTE: Plants also need nitrates (absorbed from the soil as nitrate ions)

  1. Nitrates are used to make amino acids…
  2. Amino acids are needed to make proteins…
  3. Proteins are used to help plant grow

ALL THE STEPS ABOVE ARE NEEDED FOR MAX. MARKS IN EXAM QS. “NITRATES HELP PLANT GROW” IS REJECTED.

Sucrose is transported to:

  • shoot tip
  • root tip
  • fruits
  • flowers (pollen production)
  • etc

Transpiration the evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by loss of water vapour from plant leaves, through the stomata

  • Q: Why does more transpiration happen during the day than at night?
  • A: Higher light intensity triggers stomata to open + higher temperature decreases the concentration of water vapor particles outside the leaf because heated particles have more kinetic energy and spread out away from the leaf
  • Q: Suggest how plants cope with hot, dry conditions
  • A: long and narrow leaf/spines/less stomata/hairs (water vapor particles passing out of the leaf clump together into droplets which attach to the hairs – this balances out the concentration gradient because the hairs are outside the leaf)

Why are there more stomata on the bottom of the leaf?

General idea: MINIMISES WATER LOSS: THE PLANT DOES NOT WANT TO LOSE WATER.

  • Gas exchange would occur faster if there were more stomata on top because more sunlight hits the top (light causes stomata to open and the stomata are the site of gas exchange). If there were more stomata on top, a lot more water vapor would be lost. The plant does not want this!

Experiments and Activities You Need To Know How To Describe

The Nature and Variety of Living Organisms

Structures and Functions in Living Organisms

  1. Preparation of plant and animal cells (onion and cheek cells for microscope observation)
  2. Osmosis in a model cell (Visking tubing – mass)
  3. Osmosis in potato cells (potatoes – length)
  4. Factors affecting the activity of catalase (raw/boiled/ground liver and hydrogen peroxide – height of froth)
  5. What temperature does amylase work best at? (starch suspension, water baths – color of iodine solution)
  6. Test for glucose (mixture of food extract and Benedict’s solution in boiling tube in hot water  bath – blue -> yellow/red)
  7. Test for starch
  8. Measuring the energy values of foods (holding burning food under a boiling tube of water until food is fully burnt – temperature change)

(f) Respiration

  1. Respiration in animals and plants (breathing into a tube entering limewater)

Inhaled Exhaled air(Experiments like this and variations)

(g) Gas exchange in humans

  1. Effect of exercise on breathing rate http://www.curriculumonline.ie/en/Post-Primary_Curriculum/Senior_Cycle_Curriculum/Leaving_Certificate_Established/Biology/Biology_Support_Materials/Prescribed_Activities/Detailed_Templates/Investigate_the_effect_of_exercise_on_the_breathing_rate_or_pulse_rate_of_a_human.html

Transport in plants

  1. Role of environmental factors in determining the rate of transpiration from a leafy shoot
  • effect of wind (distance of fan) – photometer setup
  • effect of light (distance of lamp – put a layer of perspex in between) – photometer setup
  • effect of humidity (different-sized plastic bags around leaves) – photometer setup

 

Case Study: Deindustrialisation (South Wales) and High-Tech Industries (M4 Corridor)

Deindustrialisation: South Wales

South Wales has experienced both growth and decline as an industrial area.

During the 19th Century Southern Wales became a vitally important industrial area, for both iron and steel production. The steep valleys, with their fast flowing rivers, provided power and transport. The hills were rich with raw materials, such as coal, iron ore and limestone, and the area was close to the ports of Cardiff and Swansea.

In 1860 there were over 30 iron works in the valleys of South Wales. They provided vital employment for the local villages, which became almost solely dependent on the new industries.

During the next 40 years improvements in the smelting process, meant that the production of iron was replaced by steel manufacture, which was more profitable.The natural resources needed were the same.

By the 1990’s only two steelworks were left in South Wales, and both of them were on the coast. The resources had run out, only one coal-mine remained working and the many small works in the valleys had closed down, causing huge social problems.

The new works were integrated steel works, which imported their raw materials from abroad. These aimed to make the industry more efficient and competitive in a growing world market. Not only is there competition form other countries but also form other materials that are increasingly being used instead of steel. Materials, such as aluminium and plastics.

An example of one is the integrated steel works at Port Talbot. Opened in 1954, it is an integrated steelworks, which is one in which all processes of the steel making industry occur under one roof.

The coal and iron ore deposits of South Wales have long since run out or become too costly to get at, so both of these raw materials are imported from places such as Africa and South America.

Port Talbot has many locational advantages. There is a large area of flat land, near to the sea for importing and exporting purposes. Near by is a large workforce and access to the entire British market through the excellent motorway links. It has created employment opportunities in the area, and has encouraged further investment and growth.

South Wales is experiencing something of a recovery again, thanks to being at one end of the M4 Corridor. Industrial Parks have been established outside of the main cities, to benefit from the large workforce,good transport links and available land.

There have also been government grants and loans made available to encourage industrial location in the area. Companies such as Sony, Bosch and Toyota have all re-located to South Wales.

Hi-tech industry: The M4 Corridor

New industrial regions in Britain have tended to grow up along main communication routes. The best example of this is the “Sunrise Strip”, which takes in the area around motorways such as the M11, M23, M3 and, most importantly, the M4.

These industries are described as being footloose. They have generally grown up over the last 25 years in “growth areas”, along communications routes. Although they do bring prosperity to regions, the new industries actually employ few people in comparison to the older, declining, heavy industries. Traditional location factors have been super-seeded by newer ones.

As access to raw materials is relatively unimportant nowadays, location, although dominated by communications considerations, also can increasingly take into account the social needs of its employees. Thus climatic, scenic, health and entertainment factors have to be included. In turn the industries try to locate near to places where a skilled workforce could be employed, such as around the university towns of Oxford or Cambridge.

The Sunrise Strip has many locational advantages:

  1. The motorway system, which allows easy access to all parts of the United Kingdom.
  2. Easy access, via the roads, to the Channel Tunnel and ports to allow export abroad.
  3. The close proximity of Heathrow, Gatwick, Stanstead and Luton airports, all of which could be used to export products.
  4. The skilled workforce found in university towns of Oxford, Cambridge, Reading and Bristol.
  5. Close proximity and good access to London, where the major government functions and financial trading occurs.
  6. The concentration of other industries means that ideas and knowledge could be shared, there will be a concentration of suitable skilled labour and transport costs may be reduced between agglomerated industries.
  7. A very attractive natural environment, which would provide a very pleasant place to live for the workers. Areas such as the Cotswolds and the Mendip Hills are in easy reach of the Sunrise Strip.

Two other good examples of similar new industrial areas are:

1. Silicon Glen in Central Scotland.

2. Silicon Valley in California, USA.

Waves

1) Waves transfer energy from one point to another without transferring matter

In transverse waves (e.g. water waves, all electromagnetic waves), the vibrations of the particles are perpendicular to the wave direction 

  • crests
  • troughs
  • wavelength = distance between two successive crests/troughs
  • amplitude = vertical distance between the crest/trough and the “middle”
  • light waves travel slower in a denser medium

In longitudinal waves (e.g. sound waves), the vibrations of the particles are in the same direction as the wave

  • compressions
  • rarefactions
  • wavelength = distance between two successive compressions/rarefactions
  • amplitude = vertical distance between the “top” of the wave and the “middle”
  • sound waves travel faster in a denser medium

2) Refraction (the more complicated ones)

Convex lens

convex lens refraction

White light through a glass prism

refraction white light glass prism

Refractive Index of Light 

  • Speed of light in air ÷ speed of light in medium
  • Refractive index for glass is 1.5, for water is 1.33 (means that light will be bent more in glass than in water)

3) Critical Angles and Total Internal Reflection

  • angle of incidence = critical angle… light travels along surface of medium
  • angle of incidence > critical angle = light is reflected back into the denser medium

Optical Fibres

  • made of glass
  • used in telecommunications (transmit data/voice/images, as light signals, over long distances)
  • used in medicine

Advantages

  • cheaper than copper wires
  • thinner than copper wires (more fibres per cable diameter so more information transmitted)
  • clearer signal (electrical signals in copper wires interfere with other copper wires in the same bundle – optical fibres carry light signals so no interference among cables in a bundle)
  • signals travel much farther than in copper signals, with the same amount of power

4) Diffraction

DiffractionYoung’s_Double-Slit_Experiment_

5) Sound waves: no medium, no sound

  • In air, disturbances are passed from air molecule to air molecule
  • In a vacuum, there is no medium to carry the disturbances produced by the vibrating object

6) Musical notes

  • Higher frequency = higher pitch
  • Higher amplitude = higher volume i.e. louder
  • Quality/timbre depends on waveform

Experiment to Measure the Speed of Sound in Air

  1. Stand a measured distance from a building with a large, flat wall. Try to have no obstacles in the way.
  2. As a trial, clap two wooden blocks together. An echo is heard: this is the clapping sound traveling to the wall and reflecting back at you. Clap repeatedly in time with the echoes (clap – echo – clap – echo etc.). Once a constant rhythm is achieved…
  3. Have someone begin timing as you clap 51 times, stopping time on the 51st clap.
  4. To calculate the speed of sound, divide 2x the distance to the wall by 1/50th the time for the 50 claps (the 51st is not included because that is when the stopwatch stopped timing).

Schoenberg “Peripetie from Five Orchestral Pieces, Op. 16” (1909)

Analysis

Schoenberg‟s painting became quite prolific during the years 1908-1910, and most of his pictures from this time were portraits, described by Schoenberg as „visions‟. The Five Orchestral Pieces were written in the summer of 1909, and Peripetie is clearly a very tempestuous and emotional movement, with Schoenberg focusing on brief and intense moods, perhaps partly because he no longer has functional harmony available to him to help prolong the movement. Schoenberg also had marital and financial problems at this time, which probably did much to exacerbate his need for emotional expression through his music.

Schoenberg‟s atonal style did not sit well with many leading figures in music of the day. He struggled to get performances and recognition, and preferred to work on music for smaller ensembles. This group of pieces for large orchestra was commissioned by Richard Strauss who then refused to play them.

The lack of tonality throws the spotlight on other important aspects of Schoenberg‟s style at this time. Central to his orchestral music is his use of instruments for their timbre, both individually and in ensembles. His melodic ideas (or motives) are thrown around the orchestra, split between instruments or groups of instruments, so that rarely does one instrument play a motive in its entirety. A glance at the first page of the score for Peripetie reveals a very sporadic approach to orchestration, with each short „clump‟ of music assigned to a different part of the orchestra. This approach to orchestration became known as klangfarbenmelodie or „tone-colour melody‟ and was typical of expressionism and later serialism.

Schoenberg wanted to avoid repeating or returning to thematic ideas, as he felt that this would result in an undesirable emphasis on one particular tonal centre. Therefore his approach was to present a short motive or theme and then immediately develop it. This inevitably meant that Schoenberg‟s compositions were often much shorter than tonal ones.

A number of features strike the listener on first exposure to Peripetie:

Melody

  •   Disjunct or angular
  •   Large intervals
  •   Extremes of pitch
  •   Irregular phrases
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  •   No predictability
  •   Many short motives, often played simultaneously

    Harmony/Tonality

  •       Dissonant
  •   Atonal
  •   No sense of key/non functional
  •   Harsh/clashes

    Rhythm

  •   No pulse or sense of metre
  •   Varied – short, fast rhythms and long, slow ones
  •   Complex, unpredictable

    Timbre/texture

  •   Huge variety of instrumental sounds and timbres in a short time
  •   Full sonorous textures and moments of extreme sparse textures
  •   Polyphonic
  •   Instruments often feature as soloists or in small ensembles

  Use of mutes, pizzicato and other effects

Other key words, which describe the overall style of Peripetie, include:  Extreme

 Intense  Contrast  Motivic  Atonal

Before looking in a little more detail at Peripetie, some important concepts need to be explained. One is the use of the hexachord, which operates as a kind of unifying feature. A hexachord is a group of six different notes played either as a chord or as short motivic ideas. Each hexachord also has a compliment – the name given to the other six notes of the chromatic scale not used in the hexachord. Peripetie has many hexachords and their compliments.

Another is the idea of a principal and secondary voice, referred to in the score (by Schoenberg, when he revised the work) as H (Hauptstimme) and N (Nebenstimme) with brackets like this …………… to show the length of the melodic idea to which the letter refers.

There is some repetition in Peripetie, but not so much of melodic ideas as of moods or timbres. When initial motives return they are changed and developed so much that the listener is unlikely to pick them out. Nevertheless it does allow us to divide Peripetie into a kind of rondo structure:

  • A section Bars 1-18 A loud, cacophonous opening, followed by quieter, more sustained chords in the horns and lower wind and ending with an extended clarinet theme, with very sparse accompaniment. These three ideas are developed throughout the piece.
  • B section Bars 18-34 Starting with a cello theme, some rhythmic ideas can now be heard with the triplet becoming an important feature. The trumpet and cellos trade thematic ideas, with the cellos moving into a very high register, before the full orchestra enters and the music seems very „edgy‟.
  • A1 section Bars 35-43 As I will show below, this section relates to the horn theme of bar 8. The dynamic and rhythmic levels have dropped again and the orchestration is again more chamber-like. At bar 37 we see the six horns once again working together.
  • C section Bars 44-58 We are only just over a minute into the movement, but already over half-way through. The bassoon and a solo cello take over from the horns, and the tempo indications alternate between „ruhiger‟ (calmer) and „heftig‟ (passionate). The texture is very empty here, until a sudden triple forte entry by the orchestra in bar 53.
  • A2 section Bars 59-66 The final section builds in excited fashion, with complex string and clarinet rhythms and the entry of trumpets and upper woodwind, moving from ppp to fff in 3-4 bars.

What „unifies‟ this movement, and leads us to consider the middle and last sections to be similar to the first? The answer to this question lies in Schoenberg‟s treatment of rhythm and pitch.

  •   Rhythmic unity: the final section (bars 59-66) has much in common with the opening section. The rhythms of bar 1 can be found in the third clarinet part for much of the final section, and the trumpets use rhythms found in bars 5 and 6.
  •   Unity of pitches: the clue here is the use of the hexachords mentioned earlier. The horns in bar 8 play a hexachord that appears again in the middle section, again in the horns, in bars 37-38. In the final section a fully orchestrated hexachord in bar 64 is exactly one semitone higher than the very first hexachord of the movement, in bar 1. There are a number of other hexachords in the movement.

    Let‟s have a look at some of the questions that may be asked of this piece in the GCSE listening paper.

    Section A questions

    Section A will contain short-answer listening questions on the work. These will fall into a number of areas.

  •   Knowledge of the expressionist style and ability to name features of it
  •   Knowledge of key vocabulary and ability to define it – for example, hexachords, compliments, atonal, klangfarbenmelodie, H and N, timbre and so on. Ensure that

    you know all the bold words from this article!

  •   Ability to name instruments which have important material in this movement – for

    example, the clarinets, horns, cellos and bassoons.

  •   Knowledge of the performing techniques used, such as mutes and pizzicato
  •   Other important features found in the music, such as the chromatic scale played by

    the trumpets in bar 2.

    Additionally, you may be asked to express your opinion about the music. In these cases, it is not important whether you like or dislike the piece, but it is important that you can justify your opinion with two or three musical reasons (for example: „I like/don‟t like this piece because of the extreme contrasts in dynamics‟).

    Section B questions

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Section B asks some fairly broad contextual questions about the work, such as when it was written. However the bulk of section B is an extended answer (in continuous prose) asking you to write about how the elements of music are used in the piece.

You can prepare for this by making notes on the overall features of each element. I have suggested how these notes might start below.

Melody/Pitch

  •   The full range of the orchestra and its instruments is used
  •   Melodies are short and motivic (developed in a cell-like fashion)
  •   Melodies are angular and disjunct (they rarely move in step)

    Harmony/tonality

  •   The work is atonal – there is no key or key relationships
  •   There is much use of hexachords
  •   Harmony is dissonant

    Timbre/Texture

  •   Motives are split between instruments („klangfarbenmelodie‟)
  •   Loud sections are dominated by brass, whilst the horns and clarinets are used extensively for warmer textures
  •   There are huge contrasts in texture

    Rhythm

  •   Small rhythmic ideas recur during the movement
  •   Rhythms are complex and very quick
  •   There is a lack of a sense of regular pulse

    Structure

  •   Hexachords and rhythmic ideas come back, giving the sense of a return to the opening idea on two subsequent occasions
  •   A kind of rondo structure, but no obvious use of structural reference points (such as cadences)

Chopin “Prelude no. 15 in Db Major, Op. 28 (‘Raindrop’)”

Analysis

Form

  •   This 89-bar piece is in a simple ternary form, with the A sections in the key of Db minor, and the central B section in the tonic minor, enharmonically changed to C# minor.
  •   However, this ternary form is unbalanced, as the final A section is significantly shorter than the other sections and operates as little more than an extended coda.
  •   The opening A section has a ternary structure of its own.
  •   The piece is also unified by the incessantly repeating pedal note (Ab in the A sections, enharmonically changed to G# in the B sections), which is likely to be the rhythmic patter of the raindrops falling on Chopin‟s roof as he composed the piece.

    Melody

  •   The opening theme, like Handel‟s, begins with a key-defining triad followed by a scale, though Chopin‟s triad falls and his scale rises and then falls, perhaps to add to the melancholy mood of the piece or to further signify the raindrops.
  •   As a throwback to the Classical era, this opening theme is regularly phrased.
  •   A second theme begins in bar 8 – another simple, sad, stepwise melody. This one is varied when it is repeated, and does not return in the final A section.
  •   As the first theme returns, there is more decoration with septuplets and acciaccaturas. This is very typical of Chopin‟s piano style.
  •   The B section melody is played in the left hand and is very foreboding and not particularly lyrical. The incessant raindrops almost dominate in this dark section.
  •   In the short reprise of section A, the melody is broken off by the sudden interruption of a cadenza-like passage for just the right hand. Rhythm
  •   The dominating rhythm is the repeating quavers of the „raindrops‟, which keep the music going despite this relatively slow tempo.
  •   One aspect of rhythm that was important in Romantic music was the application of rubato, where the performer was encouraged to be flexible with the tempo in order to allow the music to „breathe‟.

    Harmony and tonality

  •   The inner parts tend to support the melodies with thirds and sixths, and the harmony is often simple and diatonic, using mainly tonic and dominant seventh chords, with the occasional added ninth (e.g. bar 3, beat 2).
  •   Perfect cadences continue to provide closure at important points, showing that functional tonality still applies in this early part of the Romantic period.
  •   Some chromaticism appears in the second theme, and becomes more apparent in the minor key B section, along with other „melancholy‟ devices such as appoggiaturas and suspensions.
  •   Other than the move to the tonic minor, modulations tend to be quite short lived, apart from the move to Ab minor and then Bb minor in the second theme. Chopin modulates by using pivot notes.
  •   Pedal notes are a big feature of this piece, usually dominant pedals, and sometimes inverted (i.e. in the top part).

    Texture and piano writing

  •   Chopin was a master of writing for the piano, and brings out many aspects of the instrument‟s expressive qualities, such as the use of the lower register in the middle section, and the use of the pedal. He also exploits the piano‟s ability to bring out the melody whilst keeping inner parts quieter („sotto voce‟ is a favourite instruction of Chopin‟s!).
  •   The texture throughout is quite full, with three or four parts going on, and the middle of the B section is both loud and very full-textured, providing a tense and powerful climax to the piece.
  •   However, Chopin also brings in stark contrasts, and frequently reduces the texture to just one or two notes.

    It is also worth drawing attention to the large number of performance instructions in this piece, ranging from dynamics, articulation and phrasing to detailed pedaling and words such as „smorzando‟. Chopin was quite precise in indicating what he wanted – a far cry from Handel‟s score.

    Section A questions

    Once again, any 30-60 second portion of the music can suffice. Questions might be something like:

  1. Complete the melody in bar x.
  2. What cadence can be heard in bar x?
  3. What features of Romantic music can be heard in this extract?
  4. How does Chopin communicate a mood of sadness in this extract?
  5. What examples are there in this extract of expressive writing for the piano?
  6. What is the key in bar(s) x?

Section B questions

The short answer questions are likely to be about the time or period of composition, the circumstances surrounding the composition or its acquisition of the name „Raindrop‟, or something about Chopin‟s compositions for the piano or what the name Prelude means.

The long answer question will either ask you to show how this is a typical Romantic piece, or encourage you to comment on the way Chopin uses musical elements in the Prelude, but either way a good knowledge of the chief points pertaining to each element will stand you in good stead. There is a model answer on this very piece at the end of this pack.

Mozart “Symphony no. 40 in G minor” (A Guide to the GCSE Music Set Works)

Analysis

Form

Since Classical style is all about balance, it is best to begin by looking at the form of this movement, which is the first movement in a four-movement work. Like most first movements in multi-movement works of the Classical period, this Allegro is in sonata form, which is a slightly more complex type of ABA (or ternary) form, governed particularly by the use of keys to structure the music.

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Here is a clear, simple explanation of sonata form at work in this piece:

1. The “A‟ section is known as the exposition, because the main themes are “exposed‟ for the first time. In this movement, like in most sonata form pieces, there are two main themes, which we call subjects.

The first subject is in the tonic key, G minor, and begins in bar 1, without any introduction.

In bar 20 this same first subject starts to modulate, which means we are in a transition passage – a passage of music which links the first subject to the second. Some people call this a bridge passage.

In bar 44 we hear the other main theme – the second subject. This is in the relative major (B flat major), and contrasts in lots of ways with the first subject.

The exposition ends with a “winding up‟ section called a codetta – a mini version of the coda we will hear at the end of the music. Then the whole exposition is repeated.

2. The “B‟ section of the movement is called the development, because Mozart takes some time to develop (or play around with) some of the material we heard in the exposition. In this case, he concentrates entirely on the first subject and has some fun presenting it on different instruments, sometimes overlapping it with itself, and going through a lot of different, related keys. More on the keys later! The development lasts from bars 101 to 164.

3. Once Mozart has had enough playing about with the material, he “recaps‟ by giving us both subjects, and the transition, again, in a section known as the recapitulation (the returning “A‟ section if you like). However there are some big differences. 

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The first subject starts the recapitulation in bar 164, as we would expect, in the tonic key of G minor.

The transition comes in again, but this time Mozart does not modulate to the dominant. Instead he moves through a number of keys (very quickly) and returns to the tonic.

In bar 227 we hear the second subject in the tonic key, which makes it sound very different as it is now a minor-key melody.

4. Finally we hear the closing section, or coda, from bar 260 to the end. One of the strengths of sonata form is that though we feel we have been on a very interesting journey, we arrive home in a very obvious and satisfying way. 

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Melody

Classical music focuses heavily on melody, and Mozart himself is responsible for some of the simplest and most poignant melodies ever written.

  •   The first subject begins with a three-note rhythm repeated three times, followed by a rising sixth. These two ideas are later broken up into mini „cells‟ and developed incessantly, particularly in the development section.
  •   Both the first and second subjects have equal four-bar question and answer phrases, which in turn can be broken into equal two-bar phrases. This is called periodic phrasing, and is a feature of all the melodic writing in this movement.
  •   Furthermore, the answering phrase, which begins in bar 5, is the same as the questioning phrase, but a tone lower. This is a sequence, and there are many examples.
  •   If that is not enough, the rhythm of the melody of each two-bar phrase of this first subject is identical. How more balanced could Mozart be?
  •   The second subject (bar 44) has a more laid-back feel to it, and uses a falling chromatic idea. It also has few instruments (better expressed as „reduced texture‟).
  •   There is another mini-theme, a little like a second part to the second subject, which rises chromatically at bar 66.
  •   The codetta focuses on just the first three notes of the first subject, and the development on these and the rising sixth idea.

    Harmony and tonality
    I mentioned in the section on form that it is the keys that structure this movement.

  •   The exposition starts in the tonic (G minor) and ends in the relative major (Bb major). The modulation between these two keys happens in the transition. This is very normal for sonata form structure.
  •   The recapitulation also starts in the tonic, but this time any modulations are short lived and it ends in the tonic as well. This is also normal practice.
  •   The development shows Mozart‟s creative genius at work! He modulates every few bars, often by way of chromatic sequences, visiting a whole host of extremely distant keys.
  •   The end of the development gives us a huge clue that the „modulation madness‟ is coming to an end and the recapitulation is around the corner – we hear a very long dominant pedal (the note D) in the closing bars of this section. This is known as dominant preparation.
  •   The movement is littered with perfect cadences that give us clear signposts in this otherwise quite complex trip through tonality.
  •   A lot of the harmony is chromatic, but relies on circles of fifths to underpin it. A good example of this is the answering phrase in the second subject, bars 47-50, where you can clearly see the chromaticism in the violin parts, and the circle of fifths in the „cello and bass parts.
  •   It is worth noting that the harmonic rhythm – the rate at which the actual chords change underneath the melodic parts – is often quite slow, so that the melody is given room. The first subject, for instance, is set over an unchanging G minor chord for its first four bars, and then moves to a two-bar or one-bar rate of harmonic change.

    Texture and instrumentation

  •   The overriding texture in this movement is melody-dominated homophony, or „melody with accompaniment‟. There are very few examples of polyphonic texture (but see „other points‟ below).
  •   This does not mean that the music is textually one-dimensional. On the contrary, Mozart contrasts the instrumental texture constantly, using different combinations of instruments.
  •   The woodwind gets a more prominent role than that seen in the Handel, often having melodies or sharing them with the violins, though the music is still quite string-dominated. The horns‟ role is largely textural, adding weight to the harmony.

    Other points

 Mozart includes a lot more performance instructions than Handel, such as dynamics and articulation.

 There are a number of „special effects‟ such as diminished sevenths, syncopation and short passages of counterpoint.

Section A questions

Again, pick a short extract and adapt some of the suggested questions to suit it!

  1. What is the key of the extract?
  2. Name the cadence heard at the end of the extract.
  3. Complete the following melody/rhythm (don’t give more than five or six missing notes).
  4. From which part of the sonata form structure does this extract come?
  5. (For a chromatic phrase) How would you describe the melody in bar x?
  6. Name two instruments which play the melody in this section.
  7. How is the phrase at bar x contrasted when it is repeated in bar y?
  8. What melodic/rhythmic/harmonic device can you hear in bar x?
  9. How would you best describe the texture of this extract?

Section B questions

The short-answer questions in this section may ask you to identify the century or period in which the symphony was composed, or ask a question about the type of work from which this movement comes (such as how many movements the symphony has). For the longer question, focus the thinking on how Mozart uses the various elements shown above to create both balance and contrast in this movement.

Analysis of Handel “And the Glory of the Lord” (A Guide to the GCSE Music Set Works)

Analysis

The main concept that Handel communicates in this movement is joy, and much of the writing is intended to promote the feeling of optimism found in the text. Let’s have a look at how he does this.

Melody

  • Handel states each line of the text with its own melodic idea, resulting in four very different ideas, or motifs, which are each developed throughout the piece, sometimes together, sometimes separately.
  • Handel uses both triadic and stepwise melodies, and often follows one with the other by way of contrast. The first motif (“And the glory, the glory of the Lord‟), starting in bar 11, is a good example of this.
  • Melodies often rise and fall in contrast with each other – for example, the second motif (“Shall be revealed‟ – starting in bar 17) descends to contrast with the ascending first motif.
  • Repetition of small melodic cells is used, such as in the third motif (“And all flesh shall see it together‟), which starts in bar 43. Sometimes these repetitions are in sequence, such as in the second motif (bars 18-19).
  • Handel achieves a sense of occasion and dignity by proclaiming the very austere words of the fourth motif (“For the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it‟) on just two notes. This is first seen starting in bar 51.
  • These motifs are often combined, so that some voices sing one motif whilst other voices sing another. A good example of this is seen starting in bar 22, where the tenors and sopranos have the first motif, and the altos (followed by the tenors) have the second. In the passage of music starting in bar 93, Handel has three motifs going on at once!

Word setting

  • Clever word setting is one of Handel‟s trademarks, and we can see evidence of it in this movement. Handel contrasts syllabic word-setting (e.g. in the first motif, bar 11) with melismatic (e.g. the second motif, starting bar 17).
  • Word painting can be seen in the fourth motif (e.g. bars 51-57) where the slow rhythms reflect the importance of the text.

Rhythm and metre

  • The movement is in triple time, and has a lively dance-like feel to communicate the joyful mood of the words.
  • There are many examples of hemiola, usually as the music approaches an important cadence point, such as bars 9-10.
  • The music is driven throughout by an incessant crotchet rhythm in the bass line.
  •  The three beats of silence before the final cadence are extremely dramatic.

Harmony and Tonality

  • The movement is in the bright key of A major, emphasised by the first motif, which starts with an A major triad and ends with a rising scale to the tonic note.
  • Modulations in the movement are to the dominant (E major – e.g. bar 22) and the dominant of the dominant (B major – e.g. bar 74). Handel avoids minor keys and the flatter sounding sub-dominant. The modulations occur at important parts of the movement, dictating its structure. This is known as functional tonality.
  • Primary chords (I, IV and V – the major chords) and perfect cadences are extremely common in this movement, adding to its bright, optimistic mood.
  • Handel carefully chooses moments to use a more grand-sounding plagal cadence – most striking is the one in the very last bars of the movement.

    Texture

  • This is arguably the element that Handel contrasts the most, resulting in a very colourful setting.
  • When the altos start, in bar 11, they are alone, but they are answered by the other three vocal parts in homophonic texture, making this opening exchange sound very declamatory. In many of the homophonic sections, it is the basses who have the melody.
  • There is much use of imitation, resulting in sections of quite complex polyphonic textures, such as bars 17-22, the first entry of the second motif.
  • Handel contrasts the combinations of voices to make the texture colourful and interesting. Bars 22-33 are a good example of this.
  • Polyphonic and homophonic textures are contrasted throughout, and Handel often uses homophony to emphasise an important phrase, such as in bar 33, and at the end (when the tempo slows as well).
  • Handel contrasts between one, two, three and four-part vocal textures.

Orchestral writing

  • Handel uses the orchestra in three main ways – to double the vocal parts, to drive the music forward (especially in the writing for basso continuo) and to provide short interludes between the choral sections.
  • The orchestral writing is mainly string-orientated. Section A questions

    In the exam, a short extract from the movement lasting between 30 and 60 seconds will be played five times. Depending on the extract, these are examples of the types of questions you might be asked:

  1. How does Handel make the music sound joyful in this section?
  2. Complete a very short section of melody (you will be given the rhythm, and it may be one of the four main motifs. You could alternatively be asked to notate an extract of rhythm only).
  3. Name the cadence at bar x.
  4. What is the key of this extract?
  5. To which key does the music modulate at the end of this extract?
  6. How does Handel contrast the texture of the choral parts in bar(s) x?
  7. What is the name of the melodic/rhythmic/harmonic device in bar(s) x? (See the box to the left/right for a summary of devices).
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Devices are compositional “tools‟ used commonly to develop or emphasise a musical idea. Devices found in this set work include:

Melodic devices: sequence, imitation (this also falls under texture).

Rhythmic devices: hemiola.

Harmonic devices: pedal notes, inverted pedal notes, suspensions.

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Section B questions

Section B will start with one or two simple, short-answer factual questions about the music or its context – such as:

  •   In which musical period was this piece written?
  •   In which year was this piece written?
  •   In which city was Messiah first performed?
  •   What type of movement immediately precedes this chorus?
  •   What is an oratorio? (Or what genre of music does Messiah belong to?)

    Then there will be a question demanding a longer answer in prose, worth 10 marks. This will be about one or more of the elements of music, as described above.

    Examples could include:

  •   Describe how Handel creates contrast in this movement. Concentrate your answer on melody, rhythm and texture.
  •   How does Handel achieve a sense of joy and optimism in this movement? Concentrate your answer on melody, rhythm, harmony and word setting.
  •   What features of melody, harmony, rhythm, texture and instrumentation are typical of the Baroque period in this movement?

Breathing, Respiration and Gas Exchange

1. Breathing the process of getting oxygen into the lungs and carbon dioxide out of the lungs

  • Allows for gas exchange whereby oxygen is absorbed from an area of high concentration (alveoli in lungs) into an area of low concentration (red blood cells) and carbon dioxide is absorbed from an area of high concentration (blood plasma) into an area of low concentration (alveoli in lungs) by diffusion

respiratory-system

Inhalation Exhalation
Intercostal muscles contract Intercostal muscles relax
…which moves ribcage up and out ….which moves ribcage down and in
Diaphragm contracts -> moves down Diaphragm relaxes -> moves up
 volume of thoracic cavity ->U+2193.svg pressure -> air enters lungs to equalize pressure  U+2193.svg volume of thoracic cavity ->↑ pressure -> air exits lungs to equalize  pressure
  • Pleural membranes and pleural fluid are slippery to reduce friction during breathing movements

How are alveoli adapted for gas exchange?

Feature  Function
Thin (one cell thick) Short diffusion distance
Large surface area Large volumes of gas can diffuse at once
Moist Keeps cells alive
Well ventilated (constant fresh supplies of air) Maintains concentration gradients for oxygen and carbon dioxide
Close to a blood supply Efficient transport of gases to/from cells

2. Respiration the process of releasing energy through the breakdown of glucose in all living cells

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Requires oxygen Does not require oxygen
Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H20 + 2900kJ/mol (kilojoules per mole of glucose)
(In plants)
Glucose -> carbon dioxide + ethanol + energy
(In animals)
Glucose -> lactic acid + energy
Produces a lot of energy Does not produce a lot of energy
Involves mitochondria Does not involve mitochondria

Breathing and exercise

When we exercise…

  • rate of breathing
  • depth of breathing
  • heart rate

…to deliver more oxygen and glucose to the muscles faster and remove carbon dioxide 

breathing_n _exercise

  • Before, during and after exercise, an unfit person usually has a higher pulse rate than a fit person
  • After exercise, a fit person recovers much faster than an unfit person

Respiratory diseases

Chemical What it is Long term effect on the body
Nicotine Highly addictive drug
  • Affects the CNS and brain
  • Makes the heart beat faster
  • Narrows blood vessels
  • Causes heart disease
  • Raises blood pressure
  • Stomach ulcers
  • Stomach cancer
  • Lung disease
Tar
  • Brown substance that collects in the lungs
  • Contains thousands of chemicals, some of which are carcinogens.
  • Mouth, lips, throat and lung cancer
  • Smoker’s cough
  • Bronchitis
  • Pneumonia
Carbon monoxide
  • Poisonous gas
  • Taken up by the blood instead of oxygen.
  • Reduces the body’s capacity to carry oxygen as carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin more easily than oxygen,
  • Deposits fats in arteries which can lead to a heart attack or stroke
  • Poor circulation can lead to gangrene and limb amputation
Irritants and toxic substances
  • Chemicals
  • Effects the respiratory tract
  • Causes bronchitis
  • Poor health
  • Reduced energy

Reactivity Patterns in Group 1 and Group 7 Elements

  • THE HIGHER THE NUMBER OF VALENCE SHELLS…
  • THE MORE EASILY THE ELECTRONS ARE LOST AND
  • THE LESS EASILY THE ELECTRONS ARE GAINED
  • As you go down Group 1, reactivity increases. The valence electron gets further from the nucleus so its attraction to the nucleus is weakened, making It is easier to lose.
  • As you go down Group 7, reactivity decreases. There are less shells higher up Group 7 so the nucleus is closer to the region outside of the element, making it easier to attract electrons. As the number of shells increases, the nucleus is farther away from the region outside of the element so it is harder to attract electrons.

Structure of a Villus

villus

Epithelium only one cell thick so that there is short distance for active transport and diffusion

Goblet cell produces mucus which protects gut lining against digestion by body’s own enzymes

Capillary transports glucose (from carbohydrate breakdown) and amino acids (from protein breakdown)

Lacteal transports fatty acids and glycerol (from fat breakdown)

Gland lined with cells which produce digestive enzymes including maltase

Vein delivers absorbed products to the liver via the hepatic portal vein

Artery delivers blood to villi

Experiment proving that exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide than inhaled air

Inhaled Exhaled air

(A, B and C refer to the tubes unless specified)

Close end of B. Breathe in. Air from atmosphere enters through A, passes through limewater and enters your mouth (cannot enter through B because closed).

Open end of B and close end of A. Breathe out. Exhaled air passes through limewater in test tube B and exits through B.

Limewater in test tube B (which contained the air you exhaled) turns milky much faster than in test tube A (which contained the air you inhaled).

Notes on Handel’s “And the Glory of the Lord”

Modulations

The modulations happen in this order (all major keys): A-E, E-A, A-E, E-B, B-E, E-A or think of it this way: AEAEBEA

  • Modulation 1 (from A major to E major) happens around when Idea 2 (“shall be revealed”) comes in for the first time
  • Modulation 2 (from E major to A major) happens at the end of the orchestral link just before Idea 3 (“and all flesh shall see it together”) comes in for the first time – at the start of Idea 3, the key is already A major
  • Modulations 3 and 4 (from A major to E major straight to B major) happen about 7 bars/seconds after the sopranos sing Idea 4 (“for the mouth…”). NOTE: THE MODULATIONS BETWEEN THE 3 CHORDS LITERALLY HAPPEN WITHIN 3 BARS. A short orchestral link happens a while after this and it is still in B major.
  • *Modulation 5 happens somewhere around here from B major to E major – still thinking of a signal point*
  • The final modulation, Modulation 6 (from E major to A major), happens just before “and all flesh” (A) -> “and all flesh” (T) -> “and all flesh” (B) i.e. just before the altos sing “and all flesh” echoed first by tenor and then bass in quick succession (LISTEN OUT FOR WHEN THE TEXTURE IS BRIEFLY REDUCED)

GCSE Music Listening and Appraising Guide

Sections A and B

In their responses to the questions in both sections, students will need to demonstrate an understanding of the following in relation to the set works within the Areas of Study:

  • the musical elements (pitch, duration, dynamics, tempo, timbre, texture, structure)
  • identifying how resources are used in different combinations (identifying instruments and groups of instruments)
  • identifying key musical features
  • identifying musical and melodic devices (ornamentation, ostinati, riffs, use of imitation, pedal point and sequence)
  • identifying rhythmic devices (syncopation, swung rhythms, dotted rhythms and triplets)
  • identifying and discriminating between major, minor, modal, pentatonic, chromatic and atonal tonalities
  • relating music to the context in which it was created
  • identifying conventions used in different times and places
  • using appropriate musical vocabulary

expressing and justifying opinions and preferences.

Section A

Students should study the set works for each Area of Study, aurally identifying the key musical features in each work. They should understand the context within which the set works were composed and their place within the Area of Study as a whole. In this section of the examination, students will also be expected to express and justify opinions on the set work extracts and complete short musical dictation and staff notation questions.

Student should be encouraged to listen to music in a discriminating way, developing their skills of aural perception.

Section B

In Section B, students write in more detail about the set works that they have studied and this extended response will be assessed for QWC as well as the quality of the musical information conveyed. Questions may concentrate on one or more set works and could ask for a comparison between two works (within the same Area of Study or from two different Areas of Study). Students should be prepared to demonstrate that they are able to write about:

  • how the musical elements such as pitch, duration, dynamics, tempo, timbre, texture and structure have been used by the composer
  • how the instruments and groups of instruments are used
  • how any other key musical features have been used in the set work(s).

    They could also be asked to:

    • place the music in its musical, social and historical context • express and justify opinions on the set work(s) in question.

    Some knowledge of related works within the Area of Study will be given credit but is not required. However students will need to know how the work fits within the context of other pieces written in similar genres around the same time.

    Students should be encouraged to express their ideas about the set works using correct musical vocabulary, as this is a key element of the grade descriptions on page 72 and the mark scheme for Section B.

Water Uses, Supply and Demand

Sources of pollution

  •  Agriculture
    • Farm silage and slurry from farm animals
    • Fertilizers/pesticides
  •  Industry
    • For cooling machines and returning it to source at high temperature
    • Oil spillages
    • Toxic substances
  •    Domestic purposes
    • Discharge of untreated sewage
    • Using river for watching/ bathing
    • Emptying chlorinated water from pools

Uses of water

  • 3% of world’s water supply is fresh water. 75% of fresh water is stored within glaciers while 20% within ground water storage.
  • Domestic uses- cooking, washing, flushing toilets drinking.
  • Industrial uses- 300 litres of water required for 1 litre of beer. 2400 litre of water required for a hamburger. 400000 litre of water required for 1 tonne of paper.
  • Agriculture- irrigating crops provide drinking water to livestock.
  • Leisure activities- swimming pools and watering golf courts.
  • Consumption- the amount of water used. ( measures the level of demand for water).

Managing supply of clean water

  • Collection: wells, lakes, rivers, reservoir
    • Treatment: aim to the raw water so it can be consumed by people. Substances removed are used for other purposes like producing fertilizers.
    • Chlorination, aerating, sedimentation, filtration, disinfection
  •  Delivery
    • In most countries, water is delivered to houses and factories through pipes. However, in some countries, water is obtained from wells

Causes of flooding

  • Cutting down of trees, reducing interception so more surface runoff.( Deforestation)
  • Urbanisation- more concrete which is impermeable and drains so water enters river more quickly.
  • Agriculture- the risk of flooding when leaving the soil bare.
  • Global warming- melting of glaciers leading to a rise in water level. Also, higher frequency and severity of storms and rainfall.

Reasons for the increasing demand for water

  • Rapid population growth- grown from 5.3 billion to 6.8 billion people in the world from 1990 to 2010.
  • Improving standards of living- increase number of water- intensive activities.
  • Increase in agricultural output- in response to the increasing population so more water is used for agricultural purposes.
  • Industrialisation- more factories leads to higher consumption of water for industrial purposes, e.g. used for cooling machines and as a raw material.
Key points to note about water supply around the world
  • Water deficit areas- where water balance is negative so water demand exceeds water supply.
  • Water surplus areas- where water balance is positive so water supply exceeds water demand.

Source: https://www.acceleratedstudynotes.com/2012/10/01/igcse-geography-water-quality/

Measuring Average Bedload Size

Equipment needed

Caliper(Caliper)

Quadrat

Caliper

Record sheet

Pencil

Procedure

Standing in the river, drop a quadrat onto the ground or into the water and allow it to settle. Select any pebble within the range of the quadrate. Fit the pebble horizontally (i.e. on its longest axis) in the gap of the caliper and take a reading of the length. Record the value. Rotate the pebble until it is vertical (i.e. on its middle axis) and take a reading of the length. Record the value. Repeat steps 2 to 5 until you have found the average bed load size of as many pebbles as you need to obtain your desired degree of reliability.

Power's Scale of Roundness

Measuring Channel Features (Width, Depth, Velocity, Discharge)

Width

Extend a tape measure from the point where the dry bank meets the water on one side of the river to the same point on the other side (hold it taut about 20cm above water level). Record the length, viewing the reading from directly above the tape measure.

Average depth (across channel)

Immerse a metre ruler (edge facing upstream to minimize exposure to flowing water) into the water until it just touches the riverbed. Record the distance from the bed to the water surface. Repeat at regular intervals (e.g. every 50cm) across the channel.

Velocity

Measure a set distance of the river (up to 10m). Mark the start and end points. Put the float (i.e. a brightly coloured object that floats in water) slightly upstream of the start point. With a stopwatch, time how long it takes the float to travel from start to end. Repeat at least five times, releasing the float at regular intervals across the stream to measure velocity across the channel. Disregard any anomalous results (e.g. if the float gets stuck).

Discharge (cumecs or cubic metres per second)

Multiply the cross-sectional area* (square metres) by its velocity (m/s)

*width x depth

 

 

Fieldwork: Water Testing

Water Testing

pH level

Collect a water sample. Dip a dry strip of litmus paper into the sample. Leave for a few minutes or until the litmus paper has changed colour. Compare the new colour of the litmus paper to the pH colour chart (any number below 7 is acidic, any number above is alkaline).

Nitrate level

Collect a water sample. Put about 2.5ml of the water into a test tube. Add an equal volume of nitrate-reducing reagent. Cover and shake the test tube until the contents are fully combined. Observe the colour of the mixture and compare it to the colour chart in the nitrate testing kit – from this you can approximate the nitrate concentration of the water sample in mg/L.

Turbidity

Secchi disk method (in a deeper part of the river)

Slowly lower the Secchi disk into the water and stop just when you can no longer see it. Record the depth (indicated by marks on the rope). Slowly raise the disk until it can just be seen again. Record the depth. Find the mean of these two depths to determine the Secchi depth.

Secchi Disk

Reagent test method

Collect a water sample. Compare the turbidity to a control solution of equal volume. Gradually add a turbidity reagent to the control sample until it is visually identical the water sample. A value can be determined in standard Jackson Turbidity Units.

Odor

Threshold Odour Test:

Collect a water sample. Add odorless water to the sample and stop when the sample itself is odorless. The last dilution before the sample becomes odorless determines the Threshold Odor Number (TON), which measures how much odor was present.

Upper Course Vs. Lower Course

Part of river Features Velocity Width Depth Load (in general)
Upper Waterfalls

Gorges

Interlocking spurs

V-shaped valleys

Slow Narrow Shallow Large bedload
Middle Meanders

Oxbow lakes

Faster Wider Deeper Smaller material
Lower Meanders

Oxbow lakes

Floodplains

Levées

Deltas

Estuaries

Fast Wide Deep Suspended laod